Protohistoric Period - Indus Civilization (Harappan Civilization)

Prehistoric Culture

  In the prehistoric times, man lived under the tress or in the caves and ate fruits, roots, meat and fish. They slowly moved away from a life of hunting-and-gathering and started preferring agriculture and cattle-herding. They became agriculturists and began cultivating crops. Between 10, 000BC and 6000BC, man had learned to grow grains from agriculture, domesticate animals, make utensils, weave cloth, make and use polished stone implements in place of the crude stone implements of the old Stone Age. These changes in the life of man laid the foundation for the first human civilization. After the beginning of agriculture, in order to meet the needs of the growing population, man started tilling more land to produce more food grains and increasing the reproduction of animals and domesticating them. Many families started living together, the feeling of home and family emerged, villages were born and the feeling of security and hard work also was born.

Pre Harappan Cultute and Civilization

  Evidences and remains of the polished stone implements and of the agricultural life and animal husbandry of the 6000BC and 5000BC have been found in India. Articles found during the excavations done in Baluchistan in Pakistan, Gomal Valley in North-West, plains of West Punjab, Gaggar Valley of Sindh and Bahawalpur (West Pakistan), Rajasthan and Haryana clearly show evidences of the existence of culture before Indus Civilization.
   In Mehargarh in Baluchistan, remains of 700BC have been found. Mehrgarh is the earliest known Neolithic site in the northwest Indian subcontinent, with early evidence of farming, herding and metallurgy. In the Kweta Valley, remains of village life of 4000BC have been found with mud brick houses, granaries and wheel turned pottery. The early residents used local copper ore, basket containers lined with bitumen, and an array of bone tools. Probably, the life here was semi nomadic. In Balakot, some signs of life

Development of Civilizations in River Valleys

  Man gained victory over nature and environment by his hard work, experience, intellect, wisdom and power. He made his life more prosperous, happy and comfortable by new inventions, researches and changes, and by winning over nature. As a result, his life, which was confined to village and agricultural economy, grew at a rapid speed. The evidence of man’s ancient developed civilization can be seen in the remains of the villages and cities established in and within the premises of the huge river valleys. Human civilizations developed very well in the 5000 BC to 6000 BC on the banks of the Nile River in Egypt, The Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia and the Indus River in India. Human civilization and culture flourished very well in the river valleys and plains due to the fertile soil, availability of coal and good harvest from the soil, abundant rains, facility of good pastures, temperate climate and facility of transportation. These river valley civilizations have given some special contributions to the world. The Indus Valley Civilization of India is one such river valley civilization.

The Indus Civilization or Happan Civilization

  Nowadays, generally three different names are used for the Indus Valley Civilization. These names are – Indus Civilization, Indus Valley Civilization, and Harappa Civilization. The meaning of all the three names is the same. In 1921, during excavation in Harappa in Western Punjab, an ancient civilization came into light. Next year, evidences of a new vast civilization were got from excavations in Mohanjodaro. At that time, from the evidences obtained from the excavations, an impression was formed that this ancient civilization was spread till Harappa in the Indus Valley. That is why, it was named as “Indus Valley Civilization”. But the coming few years, it was proved from further excavations and researches that this civilization had spread much beyond the borders of the Indus Valley up to Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, East Punjab and Merut, which is little away from Delhi. Then, to give it a specific identity to this vast geographical region, it was named as Harappa Civilization, as the first discovery of this civilization was done in Harappa.

Discovery of Indus Valley Civilization or Happan Civilization

In Northern India, Copper Age came after the Stone Age. In this Copper Age, civilized and cultured men lived on the vast banks o the river Indus. Their civilization is known as the Copper Age Civilization and it spread in the entire North India. Remains of this civilization have been found in Sindh, Baluchistan, Punjab, Gujarat, and Saurashtra during excavations. Till 1921, it was believed that the most ancient civilization of India was the Aryan Civilization. But the remains and tools found during the excavations in the Indus Valley have proven this concept to be baseless. They have proved that there was a prosperous advanced civic civilization prevalent in India even before the Aryan Civilization. This civilization which flourished many centuries before the Rigvedic Civilization was far more advanced than the civilizations of Elam, Mesopotamia, Sumer, Greece, Rome, etc. With this, a new chapter began in the history of India.
   When Mr. Rakhaldas Banerjee dug a few hillocks while searching for some Buddhist stupas in the Larkana district of Sindh in 1922, he found well built drains and rooms during excavations. After this, the Archeological Department of India did excavation work in this place for ten years and many broken remains and lot of other items were found. Meanwhile, Raibahadur Sahni and Madhav Swaroop Vats did excavation work in Harappa in Punjab and obtained many important implements and materials. Remains of a small fort have been found in Harappa. There were a granary, houses for laborers and round platforms made of bricks in between the Northern entrance gate and the banks of Ravi River. Nitches were made in the granary for storing grains. A crematory was also found to the South of the general residence. After this many scholars did excavation work in this region and studied the material and implements obtained from here. All this was done initially in the region of the Indus River. Therefore, the civilization on which the materials obtained from here throw light is called as the Indus Civilization.
   These excavations and researches have been carried out in Mohanjodaro in Larkana district in the Sindh region in Pakistan and Chandudaro which is 130 km from there, Juderjodaro, Amri, Sukangedor at the banks of Dashak River in Baluchistan, Sotkakoh at the banks of Shadikaur River and Balakot at the banks of Vidar River, Goomla in Gomal Valley in the North West border, Harappa and later Bahawalpur in the Montgomary District of West Punjab (Pakistan), Ropar in East Punjab (India), Sanghol, Alamgir near Merut, Hulas near Saharanpur, Banwali in Haryana, Manda in Jammu, Kalibanga in Ganganagar District in Rajasthan, Surkotla in Kutch, Lothal in Saurashtra, etc. Till now, the number of places where excavations have been done for the Indus Civilization has reached almost 350.

Area and Expansion of the Indus Civilization

  The Indus Civilization or the Harappa Civilization was not limited to the valley of the Indus River or Harappa. It was spread far and wide. It was well known by 1950 that this civilization had spread to almost 1650 kilometers from Ropar in the North which is in the foothills of Shimla to Sutkangedor in the South (Near the coast of Arabian Sea and about 450 West of Karachi). In the recent excavations, evidences of the extension of the Harappa or the Indus Civilization have been found into the remote Western Coastal region to Baluchistan in Pakistan, North Western provinces, Punjab, Saurashtra, Rajasthan, and the Northern part of the Ganges Valley. It has come to light from the excavations of 1958 that this civilization had spread about 26 kilometersWest of Merut in Uttar Pradesh till Alamgirpur which is situated 32 kilometers North of Delhi and Kalibanga in Ganganagar District in Rajasthan and Lothal (730 kilometers South of Mohanjodaro) in Ahamdabad District of Gujarat. There are evidences that even those remote past years, the people of Indus region and Gujarat had cultural and trade relations with foreign countries through land and water routes. It is believed that the people of the Indus region had connections with the people of the Sumer, Nile River and the Mesopotamia Civilizations.

Begining and Founders of Indus Civilization

  It is a topic of debate as to who were the founders and promoters of the Indus Civilizations and to which race they belonged. Some scholars are of the opinion that the Aryans were the founders of the Indus Civilization. Many historians do not agree with this opinion. Their logic is that there is a lot of difference and inequality between the Aryan and the Indus Civilization. For example, the Aryan Civilization was rural and agricultural based, while the Indus Civilization was urban and trade based. The Aryans were fond of battles while the people of Indus were peace loving. In the Aryan Civilization, cow worship was practiced and fire, havan, yajya, sacrifice, etc. had special significance, but in the Indus Civilization, the bull was more respectable and fire did not have much importance while yajya was not in practice. The worship of Shiva, mother and Linga were not in practice among the Aryans, but they were very much in practice in the Indus Civilization. Metals were used extensively in the life of the Aryans, while the Indus Civilization used copper, bronze and stone. The Indus Civilization was predominantly bronze based. Because of these differences, Aryans are not regarded as the founders of the Indus Civilization. The Aryans can be called as the destroyers or the winners of this civilization, but not the founders or the builders. Some scholars are of the opinion that the founders of the Indus Civilization were people of the Sumer tribe or race. But they do not have strong evidences in support of this statement. Some scholars are of the opinion that the founders or builders of this civilization are not people of any one race, but of many races, because Harappa and Mohanjodaro were very vast, prosperous trading cities where people from countries of the East and West frequented. Most of the scholars believe that the builders of the Indus Civilization were the Dravids of the Prehistoric period. According to them, the Dravids lived in Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan and the whole of North India once upon a time and they were the founders of the Indus Civilization. Gradually they moved towards the West and entered Mesopotamia. The Dravid language which is still spoken by the Brahui people of Baluchistan is a proof of this statement. Looking at these controversial opinions and the lack of evidences, no clear conclusion can be drawn about the builders of Indus Civilization. As we stand at this unclear and doubtful line of historical knowledge, it is more appreciable and better to remain silent on this topic.

The Period of Indus Civilization

  The Indus Civilization is Bronze Age Civilization. According to Dr. Radhakumud Mukherjee, the time period of this civilization is around 3250 BC to 2750 BC. The seals of the Indus Civilizations found during the excavations of Elam and Baghdad make us to believe that this civilization was contemporary to the Mesopotamia and Elam Civilizations. So, as a result, the time period of the Indus Civilization can be aid to be 2800 BC to 2500 BC. On observing the seven levels of the ruins of Mohanjodaro, Dr. Rajbali Pandey regards the Indus Civilization to be of 4000 BC. It is the estimate of the archeologists that this civilization began somewhere around 5000 BC and its last end must have been somewhere near 2700 BC. But due to the new methods adopted by the archeologists for determining the dates, amendments have been made in the earlier opinions. Now it is being accepted that the existence of the Harappa Civilization dates back to 2300 BC to 1750 BC.

Architectural Features of Indus Civilization

  The structure and various features of the Indus Civilization are as follows:

(1) Building of forts –

  The general outline of both Mohanjodaro and Harappa cities appear to be similar. To the West of both the cities, there was a fort which was secured by a rampart or bulwark. The fort of Harappa was like a rectangle, which was about 424 meters from North to South and 201 meters from East to West. The height of the walls was about 15 meters. The fort of Mohanjodaro was built on the banks of the river. It was 6 meters high on the South side and 13 meters high on the North. In both the cities, the fort stood on a hillock and this hillock was built solely for the sake of the fort. It is quite possible that there were buildings inside the fort for religious and administrative works and these works were executed inside the fort. The main city was built under this hillock, which was spread to more than 425 meters in both the cities.

(2) Building of cities –

  The cities of the Indus Civilizations were established on the banks of the rivers. Mohanjodaro was built on the banks of the Indus while Harappa was built on the banks of the Ravi River. The building and expansion of the city was done on the basis of a well organized plan and system. There were long main roads and small by-lanes in the city. The roads divided the city into huge square parts. The longest road was about 11 meters wide and there were footpaths on both the sides of the roads for the pedestrians to walk. The roads were straight and crossed each other at right angles. Special attention was paid to the cleanliness of the road. Ditches were dug or huge mud pots were kept at some distance along the road to throw the litter and waste material. On either sides of each road and by lane, there were covered drains which were connected to the bigger drains. The waste water was flown out of the city through these drains. The water drainage system was a big achievement of the Indus Civilization.

(3) Buildings –

  The houses were so well built that there was ample natural light and fresh air and all necessary facilities for comfort. The houses were small and big, kuchcha and pukka. From the point of view of study, these buildings can be divided into the following categories :-

(a) Residential houses for the citizens –

  The residential houses were built on either side of the roads according to a set plan. The smallest house had four to five rooms. Occasionally, there were houses with two rooms also. The biggest houses were 20 meters in length and 24 meters in depth and had about 30 rooms. The houses were generally two or three storied. There were stairs made of bricks to go the roof and the floors. The houses were built with well baked bricks. The houses had courtyards and rooms with floors of well baked bricks. The Harappa and Indus Valley Civilizations totally lacked buildings made of stone. Only well baked bricks of good quality were used for building construction. In that remote past, no other country in the world used baked bricks. In Egypt, stone was available in abundance, so there were houses made of stone. But the people of Sumer, Asiriya and Babylonia used unbaked bricks. The walls well plastered. There were covered drains to drain out the dirty water from the houses and bathrooms into the big drains near the roads outside. Every good house had the facility of an open courtyard, kitchen, bathroom, toilet, well and a dustbin. Beautiful and skillfully built bathrooms are the specialty of the Indus Civilization. There was a drainage system to drain out the waste water from the bathrooms and toilets. Rows of residential houses of the workers of Harappa have been found and ruins of their means of occupation have also been found.

(b) Public and Administrative Buildings –

  In Harappa, ruins of a fort on the banks of a river have been found. There were buildings with high chairs in the fort. In Mohanjodaro also, a similar fort on an artificial hillock was made. In this fort, there was a huge royal building in with many rooms, baths and corridors. Apart from this, there were two other huge buildings. One of these was a huge meeting hall which had 20 pillars and many benches and seats for sitting. It is quite possible that this might be a public building.

(c) Baths –

  Ruins of a vast, sprawling and amazing bath have been found in Mohanjodaro. Its length is 11 meters, width 7 meters and depth 3 meters. There are steps inside the bath. There is a well built covered drain more than 2 meters in height to drain out the dirty water. There is a well nearby to fill the bath with water. There are corridors on all the four sides of the bath and behind them, there are big and small rooms. There might have arrangement for hot water in these rooms. The scholars are of the opinion that this bath was a holy place and people took bath here on religious occasions, or people performed religious rituals during festivals, or else it was a place for swimming, bathing and enjoyment for the common people.

(4) Granary and kitchen –

  in Mohanjodaro, there was a huge granary behind the great bath which was 50 meters in length from East to West and about 25 meters wide. In Harappa, there were six granaries in two rows on either side of the highway. Every granary was about 16 meters in length and 7 meters in breadth. The granaries were divided into two rows. Every row had six rooms for storing grains. The road in between them was 7 meters wide. There were corridors towards the room and towards the outside. Grains were stored here and later distributed among the people whenever needed. By this excellent system of granary of that age, it can be well understood how adept and capable the administrative system was. There were public eateries on the sides of the highways and on the squares.
   From the above description of the houses and buildings, it appears that there were huge well populated prosperous cities in the Indus region. The people of this place a excellent knowledge of architecture. From the well planned cities, buildings in a row, drains, arrangement for cleanliness, hygiene and the dustbins, it seems that there must have been some local body or municipal administration. The people in this place had good knowledge of administration. By the facilities and means of comfort, it is clear that life in Indus Civilization was full of prosperity and luxury.

Social Life

  The social life of the people of the Indus Civilization is as follows:

(1) Food –

  The main constituent of their food was wheat. They were non vegetarians and ate meat of cow, pig, sheep, chicken, fish and turtle. They also ate fruits like water melon, pomegranate, coconut, lemon, dates etc. and used milk and curd also in their diet.

(2) Clothes –

  they used cotton and woolen clothes. Their attire was simple. Men threw a shawl over their right shoulder across to the left shoulder. Women wore a special cloth which rose like a fan behind their head. Men kept small beard and moustache. They cut their hair short or rolled it up into a bun. Women braided their hair and rolled it up in many layers or into a bun, and tied it with a ribbon at the back. Wealthy women used a golden ribbon to tie their hair.

(3) Jewelry –

  Men and women used jewelry very tastefully. Both men and women wore necklaces, chains, rings, bracelets, ear rings, etc. A waistband of many layers, studs and anklets were the main jewelry of women. Danglers and nose rings were not used. The jewelry was made of gold, silver, ivory and gems. Poor and ordinary people wore jewelry made of bones, shells, copper, bronze and baked clay.

(4) Make up and beauty –

  Many cosmetics and tools were used for makeup and beauty, like, mirror, comb, kohl, surma, sindoor, etc. The hairdo of the women was very unique and attractive. They decorated their hair in many ways.

(5) Entertainment –

  Hunting wild animals, board games played with the help of dice, games played with small balls, gambling, dance, music, fight of animals etc. were the main means of entertainment. Small wheeled toy vehicles, toys in the shape of animals and birds, trinkets, whistles etc. were the toys for children. These toys were generally made of mud and occasionally of bronze and copper.

(6) Items made of stone and other metals –

  Stone was available in very limited quantity. That is why it was used for making very special things, like doors, thresholds, potter’s wheel, statues, toys, etc. from stone, gold, silver, copper, bronze, tin, mica, etc were also used for making many things. But people did not know about iron.

(7) Household implements and tools –

  beautiful vessels, utensils, pots, plates, quarter plates, bowls, glasses, cups, small spoons, cooking utensils etc were the various tools of daily use. Needles, scissors, combs made of bones and ivory, knives, sickle, axe, hacksaw, fork, knife razors, etc also have been found. These were made of copper, bronze and china clay. The mud vessels and utensils were made on the potter’s wheel. These vessels were decorated with various pictures of trees, flowers, leaves, animals and birds and concentric circles. The polish on these vessels was so beautiful, attractive and shining that they looked like china vessels.

(8) Structure of the society –

  From the tools and remains of the Indus Civilizations, it appears that their society was matriarchal. Their social life was peaceful. They had no inclination for wars and attacks.

(9) Fine Arts –

  Many statues, seals, mud vessels, toys, jewelry and many items of daily use have been found during excavations in the Indus region. From these things, we get to know about their fine arts. From the remains of their cities, roads and buildings, it appears that their knowledge about architecture was highly developed. They were familiar with the art of weaving, knitting and dyeing cloth. They made many useful things from various metals. Their metallurgy was productive and realistic. They had acquired special skill in the art of polishing the mud vessels. Coloring and polishing the mud vessels was the specialty of the people of Indus. In that era, Sumer, Elam and other countries were not aware of this skill of polishing the vessels. Pictures of veena, dhol, and statue of a dancer express their taste for music and dance. The pictures of animals and other embossed images on the seals point to a very high standard of love for beauty and fine arts. The statues made of stone, mud and metals show their great sculpting talent. They literally made the art come alive.

(10)Seals –

  Many seals made of stone and mud have been found during excavations in the Indus region. They are round and there are lively pictures of bull, hippopotamus, elephant, deer and other animals embossed on them. There are some inscriptions in a pictorial language which have not been deciphered successfully till date.

Economic Life

  The following are the salient features of the high economic life of the people of the Indus region:

(1) Agriculture and animal husbandry –

  These people grew wheat, oats, cotton, peas and sesame among grains and among fruits they grew dates, coconuts, water melon, banana, pomegranate and lemon. Grains were stored on huge urns in the granary. There was adequate arrangement for irrigation also. Along with agriculture, bull, cow, buffalo, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs, elephants and camels were also domesticated. They were familiar with the small animals and birds like swan, duck, monkey, rabbit, peacock, deer, cock, owl etc. and among the powerful animals, they knew about lion, bear, hippo, etc. This is evident from the pictures on the back of the seals, toys and statues.

(2) Industry and occupation –

  The industrial life of the people of the Indus Valley was very prosperous and busy. Potters, goldsmiths, silversmiths, ironsmiths, weavers, jewelers, sculptors, dyers, and those skilled in carving ivory were the main categories of professionals among them. They also progressed exceptionally in the art of melting, molding and mixing metals. The art of inlay work was also very advanced. It was the people of the Indus Valley who first learnt to use silver. Silver was more in use as compared to gold. One of the major achievements of the people of the Harappa Civilization in the field of skill and art was that they were very adept at making small beads from gold, silver, copper, precious gems and stones. Shops of bead makers have been found in Chanduduro and Lothal. Various professions and industries are a proof that in those days, the science of industry and handiwork was on its zenith.

(3) Trade –

  The internal trade was very prosperous in the country. Chains of shells were used for measurement and various weights made of stone were used for weighing. These weights were much more accurate in terms of true measure and uniformity as compared to those of Elam and Mesopotamia. Probably small shaped seals were used for trade and commerce. The people of Indus traded not only with other parts of India, but also with the Western countries.

Religious Life

  It appears from the available materials and the ruins and remains that religion was very well developed in the Indus Civilization. Gradually, these religious aspects grew further in India and new religious methods and traditions were mixed with them. There are many aspects of religion of the Indus Civilization which are present in the prevalent religion of India today. Two forms of the creative power of God were worshipped in the Indus Civilization – One was Male and the second was Female. In the present Hindu religion, this is the main basis of the concept of the worship of Purush and Prakriti, Shiva and Parvati.

(1) Worship of Param Purush or Yogishwar

  In one of the special seals of Mohanjodaro, a yogi seated in a posture of meditation has been etched. On the either side of his head gear, there are two horns. To the right of the yogi are an elephant and a lion, and to his right are a rhinoceros and a buffalo. From this picture, one can very well imagine it to be that of Lord Shiva. Shiva is also known as Yogishwar, Mahayogin, etc. The form of animals on His four sides clarifies the adjective of Him being called as Pashupati. The headgear with horns represents the Trishul or the Trident. On another seal made of china clay, a person sitting in meditation is etched. On his either side there is one snake and there are two snakes in front of him. This Yogi, surrounded by snakes also is a form of Lord Shiva. It is clear from these drawings that in the Indus region, a Param Purush in meditative posture was worshipped. This was the initial form of the worship of Lord Shiva. Another proof of this is that many big and small Shiva Lingas have been found during excavations in the Indus region. Lord Shiva is worshipped in the same Shiva Linga form even today.

(2) Worship of mother Goddess –

  Many statues of Mother Goddess and pictures of Mother Goddess on vessels, seals and amulets confirm the opinion that the people of Indus worshipped and prayed to the Mother Goddess. They regarded the Mother Goddess as the care taker and mother of the entire universe. They believed that the fertility of the land was related to Mother Goddess. The Mother Goddess was offer4ed sacrifice of animals and men. Over a period of time, this worship of Mother Goddess took the form of Shakti Pooja.

(3) Worship of trees –

  Trees were worshipped in the Indus Civilization. It was practiced in two ways. One was worshipping the tress in their natural or physical form and the other was worshipping them in a symbolic form, where the tree was considered as a God and its qualities were imagined and worshipped. As a result, Peepal, Neem, dates, Babool, Indian Rosewood, etc were worshipped, but Peepal was regarded as the most holy of all.

(4) Worship of animals –

  Many pictures of animals and snake worship are etched on the seals of the Indus Valley. This shows that they believed in the presence of Goddess in the animals. They considered the bull, buffalo and rhinoceros as a form of the Shakti and worshipped them. They believed that good or bad souls resided in the animals.

(5) Worship of water –

  From the Great Bath and the other baths around it, the scholars have formed an opinion that the people of the Indus Valley indulged in community bathing on auspicious occasions, festivals, celebrations and religious meetings. They believed in holy bath and worship of water.

(6) Religious traditions and methods –

  It appears from the pictures of the birds and animals, statues and drawings of Gods and Goddesses that worship of form or idol worship was practiced in the Indus Civilization. Bathing and cleanliness of the body were of special significance. It appears from the pictures of horns, pieces of rocks, Swastik, lamps, etc that these people considered certain special symbols and things as gods and Goddesses or as a representative of some emotion and worshipped them. From the strange marking of animals and birds on some of the seals, it seems that they believed in black magic. From the pictures of animal sacrifice and human sacrifice, it is clear that such sacrifices were considered as a part of worship. On some seals, lamps have been placed on the pillars and fire has been lit at the bottom. This clearly shows that the holy tradition of lighting the incense and lamp were a part of the religious practices. The picture of a God meditating in Yogasan points to the fact that Yoga and Pranayam were practiced in the Indus region.

The religion of the Indus Civilization and modern Hindu religion

  The various aspects of the religion of the Indus Valley Civilization or the Harappa Civilization, their practices and methods, ideologies, beliefs, traditions, etc have developed and grown and are present in the Hindu religion even today. The three main worships of the Harappa age – worship of Mother Goddess, worship of Adi Shiva and worship of Linga became prevalent in the Hindu religion over a period of time. The concept of One Supreme Divine Power, theory of many Gods, worship of form, idol worship, worship of Shiva, worship of Mother Goddess, snake worship, animal worship, animal sacrifice, water worship, purifying the body and holy bath, concept of Swastik, Chakra and lamp, etc were some of the religious beliefs and customs which were present in the religious life of the Indus Civilization and are still prevalent in the Hindu religion.

Political Life

  From the implements and remains obtained from the excavations in the Indus region, the scholars are of the opinion that the administration in the Indus Civilization was democratic and not monarch. The rule was not in the hands of any king of a dynasty, but rather it was in the hands of the representatives of the people. Some scholars are of the opinion that the administration in Mohanjodaro was in the hands of the priests and the religious gurus. It is obvious from the well planned construction of the houses, buildings, public buildings, roads, cities etc. that the administrative power was in the hands of any one high official of central rule. It was decentralized. Local autonomous administration was in practice. Some kind of local body like the Municipality must have been definitely in existence in the Indus region. It must have had its own rights and must have had he complete support of the public. The well planned building and expansion of Mohanjodaro and its harmonious life are its evidence. The ruins of forts and huge buildings in Mohanjodaro and Harappa are a proof of the fact that there must have been high officials in the fort, all the major political and public buildings were in the fort and probably the officers carried out all the administrative work from there itself.
   The people of the Indus Civilization did not have political outbursts, or revolutions. Their political life was happy and peaceful. They were not driven by emotions of attack, violence, battles and war. During the excavations, mace, axe, dagger, spear, etc have been obtained, but weapons like a shield, sword, armor, headgear etc have not been obtained. This proves that the people of Indus did not like wars and attacks. Their weapons were meant for defense. All their weapons of attack and war were made of low quality copper and bronze. This shows that the people of Indus Civilizations did not have any love for war. The main objective of the social and political order of the Indus Civilization was to spend a peaceful life and avail maximum happiness and prosperity.

Characteristics of the Indus Civilization

   The following are some of the characteristics of the Indus Civilization:

(1) Lack of a significant change –

  There were no revolutionary changes in this civilization. The planning expansion of both Mohanjodaro and Harappa remained the same from beginning to end. There was no mentionable change in their tools, weapons, implements, vessels, seals, calligraphy, etc. also.

(2) Lack of a luxurious life of any specific class of people –

  No such monuments, special palaces, buildings with luxurious facilities, inscriptions etc, have been found from the cities of the Indus Civilization, which express the grandeur, luxury and high living of any specific class of people. Though there were houses made of baked bricks and multi storied buildings for the wealthy people, there were no items of luxury, affluence or pomp and show. Such kind of prosperity and luxury can be seen in places where the ruling class becomes powerful, arrogant and greedy for power. But from the lack of such evidences in the Indus Civilization, it appears that there were no specific classes of powerful people.

(3) Peace loving people –

  the weapons obtained from the Indus Civilization show that the ruling class did not use violence and power. They did not terrorize. Probably, there was no disparity and hatred in the society also. The public and the ruler, both were peace loving.

Decline of Indus Civilization

There are very strange anticipations regarding how and when the Indus Valley Civilization perished, which are as follows –
(1) It is quite possible that the city of Mohanjodaro was drowned in the floods of the Indus river and the ruins were buried under the silt and sand due to the change in the climate. Some part of the city was destroyed when it was buried under the silt and sand, and the rest of it was destroyed gradually with time.
(2) Or else, the Indus river gradually shifted away from Mohanjodaro and as a result, the land became unfertile and the city perished.
(3) Or, ir might be possible that the people of Indus Valley were attacked and destroyed. The people of Indus Civilization were peace loving. They were passive towards wars and attacks. In such a situation, their luxurious life and wealth tempted the foreign invaders to attack them. As a result, there were attacks on Mohanjodaro and the people were killed. The skeletons obtained are an evidence of this theory.
(4) Or else, it might be possible that the Indus Civilization was destroyed by the continuous attacks of a powerful tribe. Probably, due to the attacks of the Aryans and their victory over the Indus people, the Indus Civilization was destroyed.

Comparison between The Indus Civilization and the Aryan Civilization

Indua Civilization	Aryan Civilization
1. The Indus Civilization was an urban civilization. The huge buildings, wide and long highways, well organized drainage, well organized city plan, all facilities of a happy city life and organized autonomous city administration are a proof of this theory.	. The civilization of the Aryans was rural. They lived in villages and ashrams. Rural life was more popular than urban life. They had no experience of the complicated city life.
2. The Indus Civilization was commerce based. Cottage industry and other big industries both were prevalent.	2. The Aryan Civilization was agriculture based. Along with animal husbandry, their other profession and occupations were also rural.
3. The Indus Civilization belonged to the Bronze Age. People used copper and bronze extensively. Silver was used less as compared to gold. Tools and implements were made from stone also, but they were totally unaware of iron.	3. Aryans were aware of the se of gold, silver, copper, bronze and iron. Stone was not used to make weapons and implements of daily use.
4. They domesticated many animals like lion, rhinoceroses, and elephants. But they did not know about using the horses.	4. The Aryans also domesticated many animals. But there is very little mention of elephants and lions in the Rigveda. Horses had a special importance in the life of the Aryans. They attacked their enemies with the help of horses and fought battles with them.
5. Bull was more significant for the people of Indus. Probably, they regarded it as a symbol of Shakti and worshipped it. They considered bull as worthy of faith.	5. In the view of the Aryans, the cow was very respectable. They considered the cow as very holy and worth protecting and worshipped it with a lot of faith.
6. Life was happy, prosperous and luxurious in the Indus Civilization.	6. The social life of the Aryans was very simple and easy.
7. The people of Indus used cotton and woolen clothes. They wore jewelry studded with gems and used cosmetics. They were skilled in the art of hair do.	7. The Aryans also wore cotton clothes and clothes made of leather. They wore many kinds of jewelry and used cosmetics.
8. They used pictography. Their special literature is still not available.	8. The Aryans progresses in the art of writing and literature. Their Vedic literature is a great treasure for the world.
9. No indication has been got regarding their thought system.	9. The Aryans were intelligent, had great imaginative power and were very clear in their thoughts. The praise of the dawn, mantras for the description of nature, verses in praise of God are all examples of their intelligence and imagination.
10. Their weapons were simple. They were made of copper, bronze and stones and their manufacturing was of low quality. They were peace loving people.	10. The weapons and tools of the Aryans were made of iron. They were sharp and pointed. They had special weapons for attacking and for battle, of which the Indus people were unaware.
11. They had achieved great progress in the field of art. The drawings on the seals and statues give an insight into their love for beauty and realism. They very skilled in the art of architecture also. It seems as if there was an age old tradition behind the art of Indus civilization.	11. The Aryans were also fond of art. But their art of experiencing beauty and the greatness and specialty of art deserves a special mention.
12. Their economic life was prosperous and advanced. Industrial specialization and localization was their basis. They were very adept at making mud toys and urns and vessels and polishing them.	12. The economic life of the Aryans was rural. They did not know the art of polishing mud vessels.
13. In the Indus Civilization, fish, turtle and other animals were generally used as food.	13. The Vedic Aryans ate meat, but they hated fish.
14. The daily life of the Indus Civilization was luxurious and full of comfort.	14. The daily life of the Aryans was simple and pure. They were recluse by nature and stayed away from materialism.
15. The people of Indus regarded Shiva and Shakti as their main Gods. Param Purush and Param Nari (Mother Goddess) were worshipped. It is understood from many statues that they believed in form worship and were idol worshippers. Linga pooja was very common. No importance was given to fire, havan and yajyas.	15. The Aryans worshipped the various powers of Nature. During the Rigvedic times, neither Shiva worship nor worship of Mother Goddess was in practice. Linga pooja was considered as non Aryan and condemnable. Fire, yajya and havan kunda had special significance in the Vedic life. Fire was considered as holy. Fire was worshipped as a goddess.

  Because of these disparities and inequalities, the Indus Valley Civilization is considered as different than the Vedic culture and more ancient. It seems justified according to generally accepted chronological scheme because the tome period of the Indus Civilization is considered to be 3rd century BC, whereas the Rigvedic Age is considered as not before the 2nd century BC. There are evidences on the basis of which it can be concluded that the Indus Civilization was more ancient than the Rigvedic Civilization. Apart from this, the things obtained during excavations of the places near the cities and villages on the banks of Narmada and the Chambal Valley in the North West Madhya Pradesh point to the fact that apart from the ancient Prehistoric Civilization, other civilizations also existed in various regions of India. Hence it is not acceptable to all that the main origin or all the civilizations in India was the Vedic Civilization. One fact is indisputable that the birth of civilizations in India was not due to the advent of the Aryans. Civilization and culture did not come in India with the Aryans. Even before the advent and spread of the Aryans, a prosperous and advanced civilization existed in India, where the comfortable, complicated and organized urban life was undoubtedly a result of the development for centuries. The Indus Civilization has contributed greatly to the development of the Indian civilization and culture. There is a great influence of the Indus Civilization in the religious field. Worship of Shiva, worship of Mother Goddess, tree worship, snake worship, animal sacrifice, black magic, mantra-tantra, belief in ghosts and amulets has all been passed on to us by the Indus Civilization. Love for ornaments, game of chess, playing of percussion instruments in feasts and festivals remind us of the Indus Civilization. City planning, water drainage system, excellent house building, use of baked bricks, concepts of good health, importance of hygiene, etc, are all priceless contributions of the Indus Civilization.

Remains of the Indus Civilization

   The Indus Civilization was not spread merely to Sindh and Punjab, but rather even remote and far off region were under its authority. Its area was wide spread. In some specific regions, some remains similar to those of the Indus Civilization have been found. They are evidences of the spread of the Indus Civilization. The major places are as mentioned under:

Chanhudaro

  Probably, the urban civilization of Chandudaro might have existed somewhere around 2600-2300 BC. The huge buildings were made of baked bricks. Among the articles and remains obtained here are ruins of buildings, various kinds of mud vessels, grains carved out of stone, currency, weights, bones, various things made of shells and ivory ornaments of the ear, nose and neck, various items of handicrafts, etc. it seems that Chandudaro was the center for making and import and export of various handicraft items. Weapons, tools and utensils of daily use were made of copper and bronze in Chandudaro. Statues of human beings and animals and toys were made of mud. The specialty of this place was colorful mud vessels on which many types of drawings were made. The seals of Chandudaro were like those of Indus civilization in pictography. All these are symptoms of a developed civilization.

Ropar and Rangpur

  Excavations were done in Ropar in the Ambala district of Punjab and in Rangpur in Saurashtra, and the articles and remains obtained from there denote the expansion of the Indus Civilization in the vast area from Punjab to Saurashtra. This is the expansion of the Mohanjodaro and Harappa culture. But one thing that needs to be mentioned here is that the things which were obtained in abundance in Mohanjodaro and Harappa were found in very less quantity in Ropar and Rangpur, likehuge urns, pots, empty and filled mangers, huge vessels, etc. which were found in huge numbers in Mohanjodaro and Harappa were found in very less quantity in Ropar and Rangpur. There was a kind of scarcity in these places. Statues of men and women and mud statues found in the Indus Civilization were not there in Ropar and Rangpur. Similarly, ornaments made of stone, ivory and shells are almost nil in these places. The types of pictographic seals found in Mohanjodaro are totally missing in Rangpur and only one such seal was found in Ropar. The gold and silver ornaments which have been found are less in number, but the style and make are of a lower quality as compared to those in Mohanjodaro. Similarly, the tools of daily use and weapons made of copper and bronze also are of lower quality. Religious prayers and worships and customs were different in Ropar and Rangpur as compared to Mohanjodaro. No evidences of worship of Peepal or the fig tree, or any other tree were found in Ropar and Rangpur. Probably their religious beliefs and customs developed in a different manner. The propagation of pictography of the Indus Civilization was also less in these places. The scholars are of the opinion that when the comfortable cities of Mohanjodaro and Harappa were destroyed, the people moved away to other places for their security. Some moved to the East South while others moved to the South West. Gradually they moved far away from their original place. This brought about a change in their culture and life too. That is why, even though there are remains of the Indus Civilization in Ropar and Rangpur, they are not so advanced. Probably, this was the declining form of the Indus Civilization. According to the archeological scholars, the civilization and culture of Ropar and Rangpur might have flourished in 2000-1500 BC.

Lothal

  Lothal is in Ahmadabad district in Gujarat. The hillocks of Lothal were dug in 1954-55. Many remains of ancient culture and civilization were found there. Its time period anticipated to be around 2500 BC. it has been considered as a part of the Mohanjodaro and Harappa culture. The people of Harappa culture came to Saurashtra via the sea route from Sindh along the coast of Kutch. In those days, there were three routes of coming to Kutch from Sindh. The main route was from Sindh to Kotra (Khawra) in Kutch, Kotri (in Khader) and then this route touched upon a few more places and reached Sur Kotra. Then this route led to Saurashtra. The remains of the culture of Harappa Age have been found in the places on this route. In the excavations done on a hillock of Kotri near Dhauliwara village in Khader, two parts have been found. In one part was a fort and in the other was a city. In Sur Kotra, remains of a settlement surrounded by a fort have also been found. These remains found during excavations, it is understood that the people of Harappa came to Kutch not only from the sea route, but also by land route, and probably from there they moved to Saurashtra.
   In Lothal, many kinds of ornaments like those of Harappa and Mohanjodaro have been found. Among these, pieces of meenakari and flowers of khadiya stone deserve a special mention. Pieces of vessels of daily use have been found. On these pieces, various forms like parallel lines, semi oval shapes with lines, waves, rhombus shapes, etc were etched on them. On one of the mud pots, the story of the crow and the fox has been depicted very beautifully. Depiction of this moral story, which is about 4000 years older than the history of moral stories is certainly a rare achievement. In Lothal, coins and seals of the Indus Civilization also have been found. On one of these, an animal with horns has been etched. The shoulder of this animal is covered with a cloth and an altar of sacrifice has been etched below the neck. Huge vessels of mud like open mouthed mangers, huge pots etc. which were found in Mohanjodaro were not found in Lothal. The type of statues of men and women and Mother Goddess found in Mohanjodaro were not found in Lothal. Just like Mohanjodaro and Harappa, agriculture was done in Lothal also. But no evidence of farming of paddy has been found in Mohanjodaro and Harappa. Some particles of bran and grain have been found in the mud and mud vessels in Lothal and Rangpur. But the most important place that has been found in Lothal is a huge quay for harboring ships and boats. This quay was 215 meters long and 37 meters wide. It seems that there was some arrangement of taking the ships from this place to the sea. It is quite possible that the traders loaded their articles in ships and boats and took them to Bahrain and other places of West Asia. A coin of Bahrain has been found in Lothal which is a proof of this statement. The remains found in Lothal do not have the excellence and maturity of the culture of Mohanjodaro.

Kalibanga

  Kalibanga is in Ganganagar district in the North of Rajasthan. It is situated on the banks of the ancient Saraswati River. A small fort with protective walls has been found here. Places of worship also have been found. Buildings, walls, round wells, broad roads, etc have been found here which point out to the fact that this city was built according to a set plan. The houses were made of bricks. There were drains for public hygiene and huge vessels were kept in public places for disposing off the garbage. Among the things of daily use, mud vessels, copper implements, seals, weights, toys, bangles, etc have been found. The civilization and culture of Kalibanga was contemporary to the Harappa Civilization. In Kalibanga, the dead bodies of people were buried. Round and square tombs have been found here which are like those in Harappa. But in Lothal, evidences of burying two bodies in the same grave have been found.