Pre Historic Period

  Generally the terms prehistory is used in the context of ancient cultures. Prehistory is related to cultures which existed before the invention of script, while History is related to the written descriptions. But the situation is a little different in India and earliest Ancient History has been divided into two parts – Prehistory and Protohistory.

Prehistory

+   The word Prehistory was used for the first time in 1851 AD by Daniel Wilson in his book “The Archaeology and the Prehistoric Annals of Scotland”. Before this, in 1833 AD, Tournal had used the phrase ‘Age of Man’ as synonymous to Prehistoric Age. Thus, Prehistoric Age starts from the appearance of man on Earth and continues till the beginning of the ancient traditions. In fact, the cultures related to the times before the invention of writing or script, that is, the Stone Age, can be included in the Prehistoric Age. According to the Farther of Archaeology Dr. H D Sankalia, “Prehistory means the history of a region, a country or a nation, people or race, before it took to or knew writing”.

Protohistory

  In the world context, the invention of writing took place in 3000 BC in Western Asia from where pictographs have been obtained. But in matters of script, the situation of India is different from that of the Sumaran script of Mesopotamia. The Indus script has not been able to be deciphered in places where the Sumaran script has been deciphered and read. In India, the civilizations contemporary to the Indus Civilization have been placed under Protohistory. In fact, the word Protohistory was first used in context of the French cultures for the first time as Protohistoire. In these regions and in the regions of South West Asia, the civilizations which did not have knowledge of writing were placed under Protohistory. Protohistory is the study of people who were living after history began, but who themselves did not have the knowledge of writing. Graham Clark has stated the cultures contemporary to Protohistory as Secondary Prehistory. But the situation in India is not like France. The Indus culture is highly developed and all evidences of urbanization have been found here. The people of this culture had their own language or script. This script has not yet been deciphered. Since the script of the Indus civilization has not been deciphered, the Indus and its contemporary cultures have been placed under Protohistory.
   The invention of script is related to a civilized and developed society. The beginning of writing is considered as the beginning of history. There are no remains of a chronological development in India. The Indus culture declined as fast as it had developed. After the downfall of this culture, degradation is seen once again and remains of rural civilization have been found. The condition of urbanization is once again established on the Indian land in the Sixth century BC in the Ganges Valley and script is developed after three centuries in the Mauryan Era in the form of Brahmi and Kharoshthi scripts. Hence, the cultures of an undeveloped society and those who existed before the invention of writing can be classified under Prehistory, those cultures with undeciphered scripts can be classified under Protohistory and those cultures with fully developed scripts can be classified under History.
   Earlier, Archaeology was regarded as merely acquiring of antiquities, but with time, importance of stratification of the collection grew. The significance of the principle of stratification, as found in Geology, is found in Archaeology too. The scientific study and criticism of this principle was started by Pitt-Rivers in the previous century. The credit of developing this principle in India goes to Sir Mortimer Wheeler. In fact, the importance of archaeological objects increased due to stratified collection as a result of the survey done in the Himalaya and Narmada Valley in the Indian region by the Patterson team. This group tried to correlate the antiquities, fossils and various other collections with each other through various scientific studies. After this, the scientific study of the material obtained from excavations began. The method of stratification started by Wheeler was strictly followed in the excavations.
   As a result of the establishment of the chemical laboratory after 1917 and Zeuner’s study of climate in the Gujarat region, the study of archaeological objects continued to be carried on in a scientific manner. But under the leadership of H D Sankalia, an effort was made to understand the problems in context of new Archaeology by new trends in scientific methodology in the Deccan College Research Institute, Pune (Maharashtra). In this institute, the scholars are studying Geology, Chemistry, landscape, Soil Analysis, Archeological Science, the science of Paleontology and the science of Paleobotany in the context of Archaeology and trying to complete the story of man and to understand his activities. Now, with the help of computers, it is possible to study the society and culture by doing minute analysis and studying the various Archaeological remains from the beginning.

ARCHAEOLOGY

  The term Archaeology is derived from the Greek words Archaios and logos. ‘Archaios’ means ancient and ‘logos’ means knowledge. Thus, Archaeology means study of ancient things or objects. But in modern days, this term is interpreted in a different way. According to the famous archaeologist Dr. H. Sakalia, “Archaeology primarily means the study of antiquities”. But with time, there was development in Archaeology and hence there was a change in its definition too. Later, Archaeology no longer remained as a study of mere antiquities. It developed as the study of man’s past. Keeping in mind the study of antiquities and man’s past, the famous American archaeologist Graham Clark gave the definition of Archaeology in the following words—“Archaeology may be simply defined as the systematic study of antiquities as a means of reconstructing the past”. In this definition of Graham Clark, importance was given to antiquities and to the various activities of man’ past. Archaeology has been regarded as a vast field of study. The definition of Archaeology, as given in broad terms by Mr. K. M. Shrivastav is – “Archaeology is a science to study and reconstruct the various stages of the development of man in the past with the help of those tools, weapons and other equipments left behind by him which have survived the onslaught of nature and climate over a long period of time”.
   The field of study of Archaeology continued to expand, and with the development and growth of the subject, its definition also kept changing. In the last four decades, there have been revolutionary changes in the field of Indian Archaeology. Now, Archaeology is no longer a collection and classification of various tools and antiquities; it also pays special attention to the detailed study of the various aspects of man, like the chronology of cultures, livelihood of man, life style, environment, types of ancient sites, the time of his stay or living on these ancient sites, obtaining of various useful natural resources and the revolutionary development of human cultures in their context, based on these antiquities. Presently, the Indian archaeologists are busy in searching for the remains of the father of these cultures – man – so that sufficient light can be thrown on man of different ages and his chronological development along with many other various aspects. To some extent, some success has been achieved from the human remains found in the Hathnora Narmada Valley, Madhya Pradesh, but these are too less and have not proved to be helpful in solving the problems regarding the development of early man. Right now, surveys and explorations are going on in the sites of various Indian rivers and valleys. Perhaps, there might be some solution to this problem in future. Various other topics are being studied to complete the story of the evolution and development of man and many topics are proving to be helpful in completing this story. Hence, Dr. Jay Narayan Pandey has aptly said, “Archaeology is a very powerful medium to bring to light those aspects of man’s past about which there is no written evidence or information. To achieve this, Archaeology has to depend on very complicated and specialized procedures”.

Addressing culture in the Archaeological context

  Culture is an often used word like Mesolithic culture, Harappan Culture, tribal culture, North Indian culture, Tamil culture, Christian culture, etc. Hence, the word culture is related to a specific group or society of man. The definition of culture has been given as follows -- “Historically created designs for living explicit and implicit, rational, irrational and non rational which exist at any given times as potential guides for the behavior of man”.
   Culture is related to human society. Man lives in a society. He can exchange his knowledge and thoughts with others. Animals lack this ability. Animals cannot extend their knowledge from one generation to the other. Culture is expressed through characteristic behavior (thoughts and speech).
   Similarly, Huxley also considers exchange of thoughts as culture. According to him, “Biological information depends on the transmission of learned behavior and is not constrained by the same physical laws. Thus the mechanism of biological change and evolution do not pertain except metaphorically to cultural change and evolution"
   Under Archaeology, we study a particular specific culture, its changes and reason of differences between cultures. For these studies, it is important for us know the general characteristics of culture. The most important characteristics of culture are pattern, change, diffusion, invention, accidental discovery and adoption.
   The entire material obtained from excavation is divided into various groups like stone implements, iron implements, pottery, etc. On further dividing these large groups, one can know about the other details like their type and form, etc. After this, a detailed comparative study of these groups leads us to the knowledge and information about any culture, like prehistoric culture, protohistoric culture, post Palaeolithic culture or the Harappan culture.
   The objects and material used by man get collected naturally and this collection stands as evidence to man’s activities. On the basis of archaeological material, Winford gives an indication about the knowledge of three kinds of human activities – technical, social and psychological. Since every material exhibits some or the other aspect of man, we easily gain knowledge about the activities of man.
   Culture is related to human society. On studying any antiquity as a culture, the story of man’s development is reflected along with the various aspects of his life. The study of the development of culture on the basis of archaeological material started as a result of the discovery of the Three Age Theory by Thomson in 1816 AD, in which he divided the archaeological collection of the museum of Denmark into three parts on the basis of technical development – Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age. With time, there were changes in this division, but its basic fundamental nature remained the same. After almost half a century, a new chapter was added in this field by the publication of a book by John Lubbock (1856) – “Prehistoric Times as Illustrated by Ancient Remains and the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages. On the basis of the economic activities, difference between the new and extinct animals and the technological development and differences in making of implements, two different ages called the Palaeolithic Age and Neolithic Age were identified in the Stone Age. Later, with time, keeping in mind the new remains, Palaeolithic Age was divided into three sub ages – Lower Age, Middle Age and Upper Age. In 1887 AD, during excavations at a place called Mas d’Azil, an independent existence of the Mesolithic Age, which was in between the Upper Palaeolithic Age and Neolithic Age, came into light. In this way, Archaeology continued to develop on the basis of new explorations. In India, the Copper Age is called as Chalcolithic culture. In the Iron Age, after the discovery of iron, the civilizations reached their zenith. The cities were established in the Sixth century BC and the Mahajanapadas were formed.
   After studying the early species, Morgan has enumerated the development of human society into three stages – from savagery through barbarism to civilization. Archaeology and Ethnology both have been complementary to each other in culture building. It is believed that initially, man was related with ordinary material and ordinary society. Gradually, the development of complicated technology and society took place. The scholars give the name of progress to this change from the ordinary to the complicated. The progress of society is cultural progress or cultural development. According to V Garden Child -- As a result of revolution in technology and social development, man could make use of his environment and bring about social and technical development. Child established the similarity of his Neolithic revolution with Morgan’s barbaric society and presented Copper and Bronze as marks of technical development. Bredwood and Willey propound the theory of man to increase the population by changing himself according to the environment while Child regards the progress of man itself as the development of society.
   Religious beliefs are also related to social activities. The remains of religious life have been obtained as works of art in archaeological finds. Examples of art have been found right from the Upper Palaeolithic Age, which are present in the form of rock paintings and statues of women. In Europe, the date of such depictions is determined as 30000 – 10000 years. Bakankar regards the green colored rock paintings obtained from the lowest stratification of Bhimbaithaka in India as belonging to the Upper Palaeolithic Age. The statue of Mother Goddess carved out of bones found in the Upper Palaeolithic strata of Belan Valley is worth mentioning. The date of the painting etched on the Ostrich Egg Shell obtained from Patne (Maharashtra) is estimated to be 25,000 BC. The statues of women carved out of bones are believed to be related to Mother Goddesses. Probably, these statues are believed to be of Mother Goddess because of everyone’s love and special attraction towards mother. Mother is regarded as the creator of man and society. Various kinds of depictions of man’s daily life, like hunting, collecting food, eating and drinking, dancing in groups, animals running, etc. are found in the rock paintings. These paintings are very beautiful and lively. These paintings demonstrate long time periods of involvement and of many eras. The depiction of man, animals, weapons and tools is so natural that it would have needed a long period of study and analysis to present them in the form of painting. It would be impossible to present such natural depiction in a day or two. It would need continuous practice and a thorough knowledge of anatomy. The discovery of color was also a significant event.
   The method of burying after death and the things kept along with the body, the position of the dead body while burying, etc also throw sufficient light on the social aspect of man. Probably, the earlier man believed in rebirth after death. Motivated by this religious belief, the items of daily use were buried along with the dead body. In a place called Inam Gaon (Pune), the legs of dead bodies have been found to be chopped off. Probably, it was done with the belief that after death, the person should not wander as a ghost or spirit.
   The manifestation of art starts from the Upper Palaeolithic Age. In the Prehistoric Age, the depiction was natural, but later the element of painting style was added to it. The ration of length and breadth and knowledge of calculation in various depictions shows the development of human brain. Similarly, the correct measurement of length and breadth of the stones in making the burial sites also depict the development of calculation and human brain.

STONE AGE

  There have been changes in Archaeology from time to time on the basis of accidental discoveries and necessities. The invention of the Three Age System also took place accidentally. In 1816 AD, C.J. Thomson, the Chairman of the Denmark National Museum, Copenhagen, started a new method of arranging the archaeological collection kept under his care in a classified manner. He placed the stone tools first in the order, then the Bronze tools and the iron tools in the end. In this way, the Three Age System started for the first time in the field of Archaeology and it is in trend in the present days also. This system is as follows:

(1) Stone Age
(2) Copper-Bronze Age
(3) Iron Age

This division was done by Mr. Thomson on the basis of the probable technical development of man, but after some time, excavations were done by another scholar Warsae in Denmark. In this excavation also stratified collections of flint, Bronze and iron tools respectively were found. Making this initial indication as the base, the archaeologists came to the conclusion that the technical development of man took place in these three stages.
   Some scholars were not satisfied with the division of the Three Age System. They wanted to divide the archaeological material on the basis of the use of the tools, definition of the archaeological material in a traditional manner, the step by step development of man, etc. Nelson planned the division in the following manner: (1) Savage (2) Huntsman or Nomad (3) Agriculturist (4) Civilization. This division depicts the step by step development of human civilization, but fails to define the technical development. Later, John Lubbock saw the differences in the tools of the Stone Age. In his book “Prehistoric Times”, he divided Prehistoric Age into two parts – Palaeolithic Age and Neolithic Age. He observed the differences in the tools, animal remains and food items of these cultures.
   Amidst the division of cultures and related debate, the exploration and discovery of new places continued and many stages of development were seen in the Palaeolithic Age itself. Later, the scholars divided the Paleolithic Age into Lower Palaeolithic Age, Middle Palaeolithic Age and Upper Palaeolithic Age. During various discoveries, the existence of yet another culture in between the Palaeolithic Age and Neolithic Age was felt. In 1887 AD, solid evidences of this period were found in the form of small stone tools during excavations in a place called Mas d’ Azil in France. This period was named as Mesolithic Age. Thus, now we get the following sequence of the Prehistoric cultures:

(1) Palaeolithic Period
(2) Mesolithic Period
(3) Neolithic Period

The above mentioned classification was mainly the Prehistoric cultural sequence obtained from France which was different from the cultural sequence obtained from Africa. The cultural division of the Early Neolithic Age in Africa was as mentioned below:

(1) Early Stone Age
(2) Middle Age
(3) Late Stone Age

The Indian Prehistory has always been influenced by the Prehistoric cultures of Europe and Africa. Before the Indian independence, no mentionable progress had been made from the point of view of cultural division. So the scholars had to accept and adopt the European cultural division of Lower Palaeolithic, Middle Palaeolithic, Upper Palaeolithic and then the Mesolithic and Neolithic. The father of Indian Archaeology, Prof. H D Sankalia used the division of European culture for the first time in his popular book Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan, and this division was accepted unanimously.

Prehistoric Tools and Techniques

  The term Prehistoric Age is mainly used for the Stone Age. This was the beginning of the development of civilizations. The development of this Age took place in many stages, the remains of which have been obtained in stratified form during the excavations and in the river banks. These antiquities point towards the activities of the man of that era. Along with the tools obtained during excavations, other materials of daily use also must have been in use, but the wood, bones, etc must have been destroyed over a long period of time. Hence, only stone tools have been found among the remains of the Prehistoric Age. These tools have been divided into many categories depending upon their form and shape and on the basis of the blade to be sharpened. Along with the development of the cultures, there was development in the method of making these tools and their types also, the description of which is as mentioned below:

Palaeolithic Age

  This period has also been divided into three parts. The tools related to these periods have been described in the same order. These tools are named mainly on the basis of the tools prevalent in Europe and Africa because the history of the study of these cultures is more ancient in Europe and Africa as compared to India. Therefore, the prevalent names of the tools in these regions have been used in the tools obtained in Indian cultures.

(A) Lower Palaeolithic Age

  Pebbles, hand axes, cleavers, etc are the main tools of this age. They included in the group of core tools. In most of the tools of this group (except cleaver) any piece of stone was sharpened into a blade to give it the form of a tool. These tools were made sometimes out of pebbles and sometimes out of chunks of stone. Hard stones like Quartzite, Trap, etc were used to make these tools. A description of the tools of Palaeolithic Age is given below:

Pebble Tools

  The crude stones which get polished as a result of flowing along with the river water for a long distance and take a round smooth shape are called as pebbles.
   As is clear from the name, these tools are made from the pebbles formed on the gravel of the rivers. They are called as pebble tools. These tools have been found from the lowest level in Olduvai Gorge (Bed I) in Africa as the first human remain. Apart from this, the places where they have been found are Kanam in Kenya, Transvaal, Vaal River Valley, Omo River Valley in Ethiopia and Ain Hanech in Algeria. In India, these tools have been found in Sohan Valley.
   These pebble tools have been divided into two categories, chopper and chopping. Since both the words have the same meaning, the scholars object to these names. R P Joshi has named them as Unifacial and Bifacial pebble tools.

Unifacial Pebble Tool

  The sharp tool made as a result of chipping and sharpening a blade on one side of the pebble is called a Unifacial Pebble Tool. The rest of the Pebble is left in its natural form and is called the Cortex.

Bifacial Pebble tool

  A sharp tool made as a result of blades on two sides of the pebble is called Bifacial Pebble Tool.

Hand axe

   These tools are considered to have developed from the pebble tools. These tools have been found in the third level (Bed III) of Olduvai Gorge. These hand axes have been found in Chelles and St, Acheul of France. In India, they have been found in Belan Valley, Sohan Valley, Narmada Valley and Krishna Valley. During excavations, they were found in the lowest level of Bheem Baithaka (Madhya Pradesh). On the basis of the shapes and techniques, Prof. Sankalia has divided Hand axes into six categories:

(1) Pear shaped Hand Axe

  This tool in the shape of a pear is round from the bottom and has a thick sharp edge on the top. It was gradually sharpened upwards from the bottom to make the top pointed.

(2) Triangular Hand Axe

  The tool is sharpened on two sides and the sharpened edges meet at a certain point to from a triangular shape. Such a tool is called Triangular Hand Axe. Its bottom is generally flat.

(3) Lanceolate or Almond Shaped Hand Axe

  This tool resembles the shape of an almond and is like a spear on the top. This tool is less in thickness and breadth. It is sharpened upwards from the bottom and made pointed at the top. In this division, help has been taken from the classification form prepared by Prof. H N Mishra.

(4) Ovate Hand Axe

  These Ovate tools are made pointed at the top by the process of sharpening.

(5) Cordate or Heart Shaped Hand Axe

  This tool in the shape of a heart is broad, well shaped and rounded at the bottom. This tool is not pointed.

(6) Micoquian Hand Axe

  This tool is small, triangular, pointed and butted at the bottom. Its lower portion is generally not sharpened. Such tools have been mostly found in a place called La Micoque in France.

Cleaver

  These tools are made on side flakes and end flakes. The flake scars of both the sides form blades as a result of sharpening. The butt of these sharp bladed tools is thick. In India, the tools of the following Stone Age levels have been found. Here, the cross section is very important. The cross sections are Parallelogrammatic and Lenticular in shape. On the basis of their shape, they are divided into two categories – U-Shaped Cleaver and V-Shaped Cleaver.
(1) U-Shaped Cleaver
This tool is in the shape of the English alphabet U. its butt is rounded and both the arms are straight. Its top is sharp and is either flat or convex in shape. (2) V-Shaped Cleaver
This tool looks like the English alphabet V. it is pointed and thick at the butt. Its arms are broad on the top. Its top is sharp and is either flat or convex in shape.

(B) Middle Palaeolithic Age

  This culture is related to the second phase of the Palaeolithic Age. In stratification, they are found on the strata above the Lower Palaeolithic Age. Compared to the tools of the Lower Palaeolithic Age, the tools of this age are made with softer stones. From the point of view of design and technique also, they are more developed than the tools of Lower Palaeolithic Age. In some places, they are made on the same kind of stone on which the Lower Palaeolithic Age tools were made, but their size become apparently smaller. These tools are made by retouching the blade derived from the core. Hence they are kept under the collection of flake tools. The Scraper and Borer are the main tools among the tools of the Middle Palaeolithic Age. They are divided into many categories on the basis of their shape and retouching. These tools are found on the pebbly gravel in the sediments formed in the rivers.

Scraper

  As is clear from the name, they must have been used for peeling or scrapping. Probably they were used to scrap wood and leather. On the basis of retouching and shape, these tools can be divided into the following categories:

(1) Single Sided Scraper

  Such tools were made by single retouching. On the basis of retouching, they can be further divided into the following categories:
(i) Straight Side Scraper
(ii) Concave Side Scraper
(iii) Convex Side Scraper
(iv) Notch Side Scraper

(2)Double Sided Scraper

  As the name suggests, these tools were made by retouching on both the sides. On the basis of retouching, they also can be further divided into many categories as:
(i) Concave-Convex
(ii) Concave Straight
(iii) Convex Straight
(iv) Biconcave
(v) Biconvex

(3)End Scrapers

  These were made by retouching upper or lower small part of the blade or nodule. This retouching was mostly made steeper towards the sides.
Occasionally, retouching is seen on both upper and lower parts of the tool.

(4) Round Scraper

  These round flakes were made by retouching the flake on all the sides.

Borer

  As the name borer and its shape suggests, this Middle Paleolithic Age tool was probably useful for making holes. Retouching was done on two sides or one side of the flake by making a notch to form a boring tip. This has been divided into two categories:
(i) Single Shouldered Borer
(ii) Double Shouldered Borer

(C)Upper Palaeolithic Age

  The tools of the Upper Palaeolithic age are mostly built on blades. Hence they come under the category of blades. Blade, Burin and points are the main tools of this age. Mostly, after chipping of blade and flake from the core, they are sharpened by retouching method and given the shape of a tool. The Upper Palaeolithic Age culture is found in the regions of Europe. The remains of this culture are not available in Africa. In India, this culture has been found in many places as a result of excavations. The remains of this culture are found in a stratified form in between the Middle Palaeolithic Age and the Mesolithic Age. The important archaeological sites related to this age are Belan Valley, Soan Valley, Mahanadi Valley, Godavari Valley, Bheem Baithaka, Patne, Vettamcherala, Muchchhapla, Chintamanugavi, Kurnool, etc. Along with the stone tools, tools made of bones of this culture are also available. The main tools of this age are Blade, Burin, Point, etc.

Blade

  This is a long tool prepared after removing it from core and retouching it. Both its sides are parallel. According the rules of blade, its length should be twice its breadth or more. Some blades have a mid-ridge and some have two ridges on the upper layer. The cross section of the blade is either triangular or trapezoidal. After doing retouching on the blades, they are given the form of various types of tools. On the basis of retouching, the blades have been divided into the following categories:
(1) Simple Blade
(2) One Margin Retouched Blade
(3) Both Margin Retouched Blade
(4) Obliquely Truncated Blade
(5) Baked Blade

Burin

  These tools were useful in etching and engraving for depiction work. Perhaps, the art of drawing started in the Upper Palaeolithic Age. So from this perspective, this tool is very important. There are the following types of Burins:
(1) Angular or Angled Burin
(2) Oblique Burin
(3) Parrot Beak like Burin

Point

  The availability of these tools starts from the Middle Palaeolithic Age. They became a main tool of the Upper Palaeolithic Age. They are made by retouching one or two sides of a flake. Their lower part is broad and the top is pointed or sharp. Occasionally, marks of tang can be seen for fixing or attaching them. Probably, they were attached to the arrows and used. The Point tools were made on both flakes and blades. The following are the different kinds of Points:
(1) Simple Point
(2) One Margin Retouched Point
s (3) Leaf Shaped Point

(D) Mesolithic Age

  This age is regarded as a link between the Palaeolithic Age and the Neolithic Age. The tools of this age become smaller and it is not possible to use them alone. That is why they are used in a composite form or with other tools. Actually, this tool is given a final shape by retouching a Micro Blade. There is variety in the tools of this age. The tools were made on small flake chips. Mostly, the tools of this age are the same as were there in the earlier culture, but some new tools are added in this culture, like Thumbnail Scraper, Micro Burin, etc.
Thumbnail Scraper
This was a very small tool of the size of a thumbnail, which was probably made by retouching on side of a broken blade.
Micro Burin
This tool was also found in this period. This is a very minute tool. The method of making this tool is also very special and specific. This tool is helpful in engraving.
In this age, man had started making geometrical tools. These geometrical tools were mainly of three types:
(1) Lunate or Crescent
(2) Triangle
(3) Trapeze

Lunate or Crescent

  This tool was small in the shape of a crescent moon. That is why it is called as Lunate. While making this tool, a micro blade is made crescent shaped and sharpened by retouching on one side. Its opposite side is straight, thick and blunt and occasionally, retouching is found on this side too. Lunates are of two types – Symmetrical and Asymmetrical

Symmetrical Lunate

   When the Lunate is equal in height in the center on both the sides, it is called as Symmetrical Lunate

Asymmetrical Lunate

   When the arms of the Lunate are not equal, it is called as Asymmetrical Lunate.

Triangle

   This tool is very small and triangular in shape. Two arms of the tool are blunted. When the two arms of the triangle forming the top angle are equal, it is called as Isocelene and when the arms of triangle are unequal, it is called as Scalene.

Trapeze

   In this tool, the upper and lower arms are parallel to each other, but the lower arms are longer and the upper arms are smaller. Except the lower long arm, all the other arms are blunted. This tool is a symbol of the developed culture of the Mesolithic Age.

(E) Neolithic Age

  This age is regarded as the age of revolution in the field of social up gradation. In this age, man had started giving up his dependence on his life as a hunter and food gatherer in the society. He had started a settled life in a certain place and begun agriculture and animal husbandry. There were revolutionary changes in his tools also. In the Neolithic Age, along with the earlier used tools, making of new tools had also begun. We can find many stages of making these tools, like flaking, pecking, grinding and polishing. As a result of the above mentioned processes, the tools became very shining and glazed. Among the stone tools of this age, the following the main tools:

Celts or Axes

s   This tool was tied to a long piece of wood for use. Its butt was narrow and round and the sharp end was heavy and broad. Its cross section is very important.

Chisel

  It is a tool similar to the modern chisel. It is a thin, long or square and round tool which starts narrowing from halfway upwards on both the sides and gradually becomes sharp like a blade.

Adze

  This tool like the modern axe which is flat surfaced on one side and raise on the other. Both the sides join to make a sharp edge. This tool is related to ironsmiths or carpenters. It is used to peel wood etc and make the smooth. A wooden rod is fixed or tied to it in such a manner that the broader part of the blade is in the forefront of the wood.

Ring Stone

  This is a round stone tool with a hole. The half or one inch diameter hole is made from both the sides of the stone. This round stone is thinner towards the hole and thick towards the outer edge. It is made smooth by grinding and packing. Occasionally, they were polished also.

Saddle Quern

  This tool is like the modern grindstone which made of a flat stone or a stone with a depression in the center. It was made to prepare food.

Muller

  This tool resembles the modern muller or pounder of the grindstone which is flat at the bottom and rounded at the top. Apart from these, Hammer Stone and Fabricators also have been found as tools of this culture.

Tools made of bones

  In a place called Chirand, tools made of bones have also been found. The main among these bone tools are single barbed and double barbed arrow heads. Apart from these, needles and fish hooks made of bones have also been found.

Technique of making the tools

  In the Prehistoric Age, man sustained himself by hunting with the help of various tools and gathering food. These tools were made of stones, bones and wood. The remains of wooden tools are not found from the strata of the Prehistoric Age, but stone tools have been found from all the Prehistoric stages and bone tools have been found from the strata of the Upper Palaeolithic and Neolithic strata. The tools were shaped according to the functions to be carried out by the tool and as per the needs. These tools were made on flake blades, micro blades, core, etc, which were then given retouching (intentional working). Initially these tools must have been made without any planning, but later they were made methodically in a systematic manner. Keeping in mind the structure of the tools, flakes, blades, etc were taken out. Gradually, man became skilled in making his tools just like a craftsman becomes skilled in carving his favorite statue, which means he cuts only the right size of stone as is necessary to carve the statue, and thus he makes he prepares the statues of Shankar, Ganesh, Durga or anyone he likes. In this structure, the parts of the body are same, but still we are able to differentiate as to who is Shankar and who is Ganesh, or who is Parvati and who is Durga.
   Different techniques are adopted to make these tools. To make stone tools, stone chips or flakes are first removed from a stone boulder or pebble. A core or depression is formed in the place from where the flake is removed. This core is called negative flake scar. This flake has the same natural protrusion on the top as on the removed stone. This is called the cortex. Sometimes, before removing the flake or blade, marking is done a determined spot and flakes are removed by striking hard. Marks of making platform can be found on the flakes or blades removed from the surface thus prepared. In this way, tools are made by removing flakes or blades.

CHALCOLITHIC CULTURE

  The spread of the urban civilization of the Copper Age remained in a large part of the North West and Western region of the Indian subcontinent till the third millennium BC. The urban civilization of this culture vanishes around the seventeenth century BC. After this, another urban civilization started developing from the sixth century BC.
   The agriculturist societies which developed outside the domain of the Indus culture are generally called as cultures of the Chalcolithic Age. The economy of all these cultures was based on agriculture and rural life. But still there is ample difference between them due to their local needs and circumstances.
   Five such cultures are noteworthy which are mentioned in sequence as follows:
(1) Ochre Colored Pottery of the Upper Ganga Valley and Copper Hoard Culture
(2) Kayatha Culture – prominent places – Kayatha, Tripuri (Jabalpur), Aeran (Sagar), Ujjain
(3) The Banas or the Ahar Culture
(4) Malwa Culture or the Navdatoli-Maheshwar Culture
(5) Jarve Chalcolithic Culture – Nevasa in Maharashtra, Diamavad Jarve and Inamgaon etc.
   Out of these, the first, or the Copper Hoard Culture was centered in the Doab region of the Upper Ganga Valley and the Kayatha, Banas and Malwa cultures were centered in Madhya Bharat, which come under the Western part of the modern Madhya Pradesh. It is also called as Malwa (270 10’ – 250 10’N and 730 45’ – 790 14’E). This region connects the peninsular India to the Ganga Valley. This entire region is watered by two major rivers. Narmada, Tapi and Mahanadi fall in the Arabian Sea. The Chambal and Betwa are tributaries of Yamuna River. In this way, their water falls in the Bay of Bengal trough the Ganga River. The center of Jarve—Nevasa was Maharashtra.

Copper Hoards

  In 1822 AD, copper tools were accidentally found from Bithoor in Kanpur in the Doab region for the first time. After that, copper hoards have been constantly found in the Ganga Yamuna Doab region. They are generally unearthed in a group or collection while tilling the fields for agriculture or while digging the earth. Since all of them are made of copper and always found collectively, they have been termed as Copper Hoards.
   Such tools have been found outside the Doab region also, in the Chhota Nagpur, Orissa and Deccan. They have been found till Bhalojan of Pakistan in the North West. Since much is not known about them, the scholars have given various opinions about them. Hein Gillard related them to the Aryans and Pigget related them to the Harappan refugees who relocated to other places. In 1951 AD, B. B. Lal studied the Copper Hoards obtained from different places and tried to clarify their regional nature on the basis of their structural type. In brief, he stated that the context of all the Copper Hoards is not same. The Trunnian Axe, Fort Munaro, Axe Adze and Socketed Axe had been found only in North West India. No such tools have been found from the Doab region. Similarly, Harpoons, Bar Celts and human statues have not been found outside the Ganga Yamuna Doab region. Apart from this, the Antennae Sword found in the Ganga Yamuna Doab have been cast and hammered in one piece. The number of Copper Hoards reported to have been found in Ganga Yamuna Doab region is approximately 85-90.

Diffusion or spread of the Culture

  The places in Ganga Yamuna Doab, from where these Copper Hoards have been found are Baharabad, Baheriya (Shahjahanpur), Balua (Varanasi), Badgaon, Indilapur, Nasirpur (Saharanpur), Bisauli (Badayun), Bithoor (Kanpur), Chandausi (Muradabad), Devati (Lucknow), Sarthauli, Dhaka (Shahjahanpur), Fatehgarh (Farukhabad), Gadhaunli, Hardi, Nakarahaya (Sitapur), Shahabad, Madanapur, Mazaharpur, Kamalpur, Hardoi Head Office (Hardoi), Keeratpur, Manpur (Buland Shahar), Kaushambi, Mirapatti (Hadiya, Allahabad), Chautang, Maund (Mathura, Pariyar (Unnav), Rajapur Parasu (Bijnaur), Sepai (Eta), etc.
   From the chemical testing of the Copper tools found from the Indian subcontinent, it was revealed that the Copper tools belonging to the Harappan culture had a mix of tin in them. Those belonging to the Chalcolithic period had a blend of Mica in them. But the Copper Hoards found in context to the Ganga Valley were generally made of pure Copper with an occasional mix of Arsenic. The main tools found in the Doab region are:
   (1) Flat Axes (2) Shouldered Axes (3) Lugged Shouldered Axes (4) Bar Celts (5) Battle Axes (6) Weeding Chisel) (7) Bar (8) Harpoons (9) Spear with a hook (10) Spear Head with a mid-rib (11) Antennae Sword (12) Anthropomorphic figures (13) Rings