Sources of Ancient Indian History

   History is the chronicle of the past events. History is thus the re-creation of past by selecting important events and facts. These facts are found in many forms, which are called the "sources of history". Although the ancient history of india is a matter of pride, but there seems to be a lack of authentic sources for acquiring knowledge about the history of that time. It is because of this reason that many european and indian historians tried to prove that in ancient times indians did not have any liking for recording history. The main historians of this view are Fleet, Elphinstone, Smith, Majumdar and Tripathi etc. Some historians even believe that in ancient times, indians lacked the 'historical sense'. Dr. R. S. Tripathi has written that despite the largeness and richness of ancient indian literature, it lacks the historical material. It does not mean that india's past does not have any memorable events. Perhaps the ignorance towards this very important genre of literature is at the root of the lack of the 'historical sense'. Al baruni has also expressed similar thought that 'the hindus are very ignorant towards an order of the historical events.' They are very careless regarding the ordering of dates. Whenever they are asked something, which they cannot answer, they start 'making stories.'
   But the view expounded by the above scholars cannot be accepted. If a critical study is carried, it would be very easily proved that there is plenty of historical sources in ancient india history. The many epics written in ancient india, and now available archaeological material, many inscriptions, coins and the family-trees inscribed over them prove that indians were not indifferent towards history. Thus it is absolutely irrational to believe that the ancient indians did not have a historical sense. Although it is very true that there is not such epic, written in ancient india which could be termed as a completely 'historical epic'. Perhaps, the first reason behind it might be that the definition of history in ancient india was different than what it is today. Secondly in india, people preferred to learn the historical events by heart. Apart from these reasons, the indian society was essentially a spiritual one and the chief aim of ancient indian writing was to keep alive the religious, philosophical, literary and social traditions, rather than to describe the political events.
  The sources of ancient indian history might be classified into two groups -

(1) Literary Sources (2) Archaeological Sources

(1) Literary Sources

  There is plenty of written material on ancient indian history. For the convenience of study, the literary material can further be classified as follows :-

(i) Religious Literature (ii) Secular Literature

Religious Literature

   There is description of the political, social, cultural, economic and religious life of the people in the religious books of India. All the aspects of life have been considered in these books.
In these books, the facts are presented as they were in those days. These literary books are mainly of three different religions –
(1) Vedis/Brahmin religion (2) Buddhism and (3) Jainism.

(1) The Vedic/Brahmin Literature

   The following books are of special significance among the literature of the Brahmin religion:

(i) The Vedas

  They are Rigveda, Samveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda. Every veda has the Samhita, Brahmin, Aranyaka and the Upanishad divisions. All the four Vedas throw light on the social, religious and spiritual life of the Aryans. They taught about the propagation, war with the non Aryans, dynasties of the Aryans, philosophical thinking, facts, etc. of the Aryans.

(ii) The Vedangas

   There are six Vedangas – Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakaran, Nirukta, Chhanda and Jyotish. All the faculties of learning were grouped under these six divisions. The Vedic learning was made easily and simple through these Vedangas and the knowledge of those days is said to be scientific.

(iii) Sutragranthas

   They are – The Shrauta sutra, in which there is an explanation on the mahayajnas, yajna vedis, mandapas, Grahasutras which give an insight into the Griha sanskaras and karmakanda along with the worldly duties, and Dharmasutra, which gave information about religion and its rules, and they throw light on the political and social order of those days.

(iv) Smritis

   The Smrits describe the dos and don’ts of the various acts of the entire life. They give complete knowledge about the social order, related principles, rules, customs, traditions, relationship between the king and the subjects, duties, etc. The main Smritis are the Manusmriti, Yagyavalkya Amriti, Narad Smriti, Brihaspati Smriti and Parashar Smriti.

(v) Puranas

   There are Eighteen Puranas. There is very important historical information in the Puranas. There is a description of the ancient kings and Gods of India. Along with the various dynasties, there is a table describing the dynasties of the Shishunaga, Nanda, Maurya, Shunga, Kanva, Andhra, Gupta, etc. the Puranas are filled with valuable historical stories. But there is need to study them carefully and deeply.

(2) Buddhist Literature

   After the literature of the Brahmin religion comes the literature of the Buddhist religion. The following religious books of Buddhism are worth mentioning:

(i) The Pitaka Texts

   Vinayapitaka, Suttapitaka and Abhidhammapitaka. The Vinayapitaka contains the dos and don’ts related to the Buddhist Sanghas and the daily life of the Buddhist monks. The Suttapitaka contains the preachings, principles, lectures, examples and storylines of Buddhism. In the Abhidhammapitaka, the explanation of Buddhism is of the higher level and in the form of philosophy. One get to know about the religious condition and social status of the contemporary times from the Tripitaka texts.

(ii) The Jataka texts

   The Jatakas are 549 in number. The principles and rules of daily ethics have been explained in the form of stories in the Jatakas. The Jatakas also have a description of the previous births of Buddha. The social, political and economic condition of the Buddhist age can be understood from the Jatakas.

(iii) Pali Buddhist texts

   The Buddhist texts written in Pali language also a lot of historical matter. Milind Panho, Deepvansh and Mahavansh are the main texts. Milind Panho has a conversation on religious subjects between the Greek ruler Milind and the Buddhist monk Nagsena. It throws light on the life of the century before Christ. Deepvansh and Mahavansh are epics and are Buddhist texts of Sri Lanka. The Mahavansh describes Chandragupta Maurya.

(iv) Sanskrit Buddhist Texts

   There many Buddhist books written in Sanskrit also, like Mahavastu, Lalit Vistar, Buddha Charitra, Saundarananda Kavya, Divyavadan, Manjushri Moolakalpa, etc. Mahavastu and Lalit Vistar are the life sketch of the Buddha. It makes us aware of the prevailing social and religious life style. Buddhacharitra is the epic written by Ashwaghosha. Divyavadan narrates the story of the successors of Ashoka till Pushyamitra Shumga. In Manjushri Moolakalpa, there is some mention here and there of the political events of the pre Mauryan age till the age of Harsha.

(3) Jain Literature

   There is abundant historical matter scattered in the Jain literature too. These Jain literature were written from 1st century AD till the 6th century AD in different periods. The following the main books among them:

(i) Parishisht Parvan

   This is the most important historical book, which was written by Acharya Hemchandra Suri.

(ii) Bhadrabahu Charitra

   Bhadrabahu was a famous Jain Scholar monk. In this book, there is a description of the period of Chandragupta Maurya.

(iii) Jain Agam Texts

   The twelve Angas have a prominent place among the Agam texts. The main Angas are Acharanga Sutra, Suyadanga Sutra, Thananga, Bhagavati Sutra, Nyayadhamma Kaha Sutra, Upasakadasah Sutra, Antakrddaasah Sutra, Vivagasuyama Sutra, Drstivada, etc. these Suttas or Angas consist of a collection of the principles of Mahavir, mention of the rules and code of conduct to be followed by the Jain monks, various preaching, the life of Mahavir and his works, description of the life and contribution of famous monks, various dos and don’ts of the devotee’s life and codes of conduct. All these throw light on all the aspects of the life in those days.

(iv) Vyakhya Granth and Teeka Granth

   Many Jain monks and scholars have written numerous books of explanation and translation in Sanskrit of the Jain books. Some books, there is a combination of Sanskrit and Pali languages. They also point towards the life of those days.

(v) Other books

   collection of stories (Kathakosh), Trilog-Pragyapti, Kalika Puran, Pushpashraya, Jain Kaplasutra, and other Jain books have abundant matter available for historical use. There is a good description of Shronik, Ajatshatru, Udayan, Pradyot and other kings.

Secular Literature

   We have described the religious books earlier. Apart from religious books, there are other books of general literature. They are in Sanskrit as well as in Prakrit. They include dramas, poetry, stories, lectures, adoration of the brave and biographical poetries. They are filled with matter related to political and cultural history. The following books of general literature are worth mentioning:

(a) Grammar and language books

   Ashadhyayi by Panini – This is a famous book of Grammar by Panini. Apart from this, Katyayan and Patanjali also wrote books on Grammar. We can get a good insight into the civilization and culture of the pre Mauryan period and the Mauryan period by reading the articles in these books.

(b) Political Science

  In the ancient times, some books had been written on Political Science and Administration. Some of the famous books are:

Kautilya’s Arthashastra

   the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya, Vishnugupta Chanakya Kautilya wrote Arthashastra in the 4th century BC. This is a famous book on Political Science and Administration. It gives a lot of information on the administration and social, political, economic and religious conditions of the times of Chandragupta Maurya.

Kamandakeeya Neetishastra, Barhaspatya Arthashastra, Shukra Neetisaar

  Just like Kautilya’s Arthashastra, these are also famous books on Political Science and Administration.

(c) Astrology

   Gargi Samhita – This is a book on Astrology and it was written in the 1st century AD. It throws light on the invasions and administration of the Greeks.

(d) Dramas

   Malvikagnimitra of Kalidasa and Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadutta are also very significant from the point of view of History. In Malvikagnimitra, there is description of Pushyamitra Shunga, battles with Greeks, the private lives of the royal families and the condition of Vidisha inthose days. In Mudrarakhsas, there is a description of Nanda dynasty of Magadha, Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya. In the three plays Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarshika of the Emperor Harsha,one can get a glimpse of the cultural life of those days.

(e) Poetry of praise, Biographies

   There are some books written in Sanskrit and Prakrit in which the intention of the writers was to praise their respective kings who protected them, but they have also thrown light on the historical events of those times. Among them, the books worth mentioning are Harsha Charita by Baan, Vallabhi Charit by Anant Bhatt, Vikramankadev Charit by Bilhan, Navsahasank Charit by Parimalgupta, Prithviraj Vijaya by Jayramgupta. Other books are Hamir Kavya, Bhoj Prabandh, and in Tamil language – Nandivalkambakam, kulontugana Chillettuparini, Kalingattu Parini, Cholavanshacharitam and Rajasatanaula, and many books of the Sangam era are worth mentioning.

(f) Other literary books

   There are some books which were written purely from the creativity point of view, but they indirectly depict the cultural life of those times. Beautiful stories like Brihat Katha by Gunadhya, Trailokya Sundari by Rudra, Manovati by Dhaval, Charuvati, Sumanottari, Bhageerathi, Bindamati, Vilasvati by Varuruchi, and Tarangavati in Prakrit language also point towards the ancient history. Brihat Katha Manjari by Kshemendra is also one such book.

(g) Historical books

   The historical books also have their own special significance in building the Indian History. There are historical books of India and foreign historical descriptions and books among them

Indian Historical Books

   Apart from the religious and general literature books, there are some historical books too. The following the main among them:

a) Epics

   Ramayana and Mahabharata are the two famous epics of India. In these books, we can find abundant information on the religious, social, political, economic and cultural life of the Aryans and non Aryans of those times. There is complete knowledge about the spread of Aryan civilization and culture in the South in these books.

(b) Rajtarangini

   This book written by Kalhan of Kashmir is a historical book. There is history of Kashmir till the 12th century in this book.

(c) Gaudvaho

   There is the description of the world victory of Yashovarman, the king of Kannauj in this book written by Vakyapatiraj.

(d) Other books

  Raasmala and Keerti Kaumudi by Someshwar, Sukritsankeertan by Arisingh, Kumarpalcharita by Jaysingh, etc. are some other historical books which are full of history of Gujrat. Similarly, Ramcharit of the Sandhyakarandi throws life on the entire history of the Pal dynasty of Bengal.

Books of Foreign Travellors

   A lot of information is available in the foreign literature and books written by foreign writers. Apart from the Indian literature, these books also help in the construction of Indian History. Ancient India had political, religious, economic and cultural relations with China, countries South East Asia and Greece, Iran, Rome, Arab and Tibet etc. many people from these countries came to India, expressed their views about India and wrote in detail about their travels. Many foreign traders and ambassadors also came to India. They also wrote their descriptions. These descriptions throw light on the history of India. We can divide these books into following divisions:

(a) Greek descriptions and books

   The descriptions and books written by the Greek writers and travelers have a special historical significance. Among these Greek writers, Sophocles, Hecataeus Miletus, Herodotus (484 to 431 BC), Cassius (416 to 398 BC) are those who lived before Alexander the Great and Niarcus, Aristobulus, Socrates, Epi Curus, Chuchenez, are contemporaries of Alexander and Megasthenes, Deimachus, Strabo, Pliny, Arrian, Dionysius, Polybius, Plutarch, etc are those who lived after Alexander. Megasthanese was a Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. Similarly, Deimachus and Dionysius were Greek ambassadors in the court of Bindusar Maurya. The Roman scholar Ptolemy has also highlighted the geography of India in his book ‘Geography’. But as compared to books by all these authors, “Indica” written by Megasthnese has a special importance.

(b) Chinese descriptive books

  In the ancient times, the Chinese came to India to study the Indian Buddhist religion, literature and culture and they travelled in many states. They have described the contemporary civilization, culture and religion in a very significant manner. The following Chinese writers and travelers are significant:

(i) Sumacheen

  He wrote history in the 1st century BC in which he has written about India.

(ii) Fa Hien

  He came in 405 AD to study the Buddhist books and to discover India. He travelled in India for about 14-15 years. His description of India is very useful to understand the history of the Gupta period.

(iii) Sungyun

   He came to India in 518 AD to do research on the Buddhist religious books. He stayed here for three years and went back with 160 books.

(iv) Huen Tsang

   This Buddhist Chinese traveler came to India in 629 AD. He stayed in India for about thirteen years. His description of India is very important to know about the history of the Harsha period.

(v) Huili

  He wrote the biography of Huen Tsang, which throws light on the history of India.

(vi) Itsing

  He came to India by the end of the 7th century and he also described about the contemporary condition of India, but his description was not as elaborate as that of Huen Tsang.

(c) Tibetan Books

  Among the Tibetan books, the books Kangyoor and Tangyoor by Lama Taranath are of special significance from the point of view of Indian History. They belong to the 12th century.

(d) Arab Books

  Some scholars and writers from Arab came to India in the medieval ages along with the invaders who followed Islam. The scholars of Arab and Central Asia have written about India in their travelogues and other books. Among them, the prominent writers are Al-Baruni Arabzarhad, Ibnakhudbida, Ibn Masoodi, Ibn Hautlan, Suleman, Abuzaid Hasan, Al Hanneerisi, etc. But out of these, Al Baruni’s book Tahakeek e Hind is the most important. It throws light on the contemporary geography, religion, philosophy, politics, society and culture of India. Al Baruni had come to India in the 11th century during the invasions of Mahmood Gaznavi.

(2) Archaeological Sources

   The archeological material is very helpful in the construction of history. Archeological material contributes in organizing and systematically arranging ancient history. The archeological material can be divided into the following divisions:

(1) Inscriptions

   The writings on the walls of the caves, stones and rocks, pillars and bronze plates are called as inscriptions. For example, the writings on the pillar of Mahrauli by Chandragupta, the writings of the Elephant caves in Kharvel, etc., inscriptions on the Ashoka Pillar, inscriptions on the walls of the temples, etc. they very important in deciding the dates and bringing about harmony and coordination in history. Inscriptions throw ample light on the social, political, religious and cultural life and give us a lot of information about the names of the kings, teir dynasties, dates, events etc. Inscriptions are also of two types. First, Indian inscriptions like those in Prayag and Mahrauli. Second, foreign inscriptions, like the inscription of Boghazkoi in Asia Minor, mud tablets of Al Amani in Egypt.

(2) Stone inscriptions or inscriptions on rocks

   the rock inscriptions were written by the royal poets and inscribed on rocks. The important rock inscriptions are:
(i) The inscription on Ashoka Pillar by Samudragupta in Allahabad
(ii) The inscription of Gwalior by Bhoj (Pratihar)
(iii) The inscription of Vikramasen in Bengal
(iV) The inscription on Yashodharman Keertistambh of Dashpur (Mandsaur, M.P.)
These are important inscribed resources to gain knowledge about the dates and chronology of the political history of the royal dynasties.
The inscriptions and bronze tablets are available from the time of Gupta period. The Mahrauli Pillar inscription of Chandragupta, inscriptions of Skandagupta and Gupta inscriptions obtained from Mandsaur are very important.
Apart from the inscriptions of the Chauhan dynasty, Solanki, Parihar, Rashtrakoot, Satvahana, Parmar, etc., the inscriptions of the Muslim period also have contributed to the construction of Indian History. The Samarpan inscriptions have been obtained from the base of the statues, or from the temples and palaces. According to Fleet: “With the help of inscriptions, we can easily decide the dates and bring about commonness in the Indian History.”

(3) Coins

  Coins made of gold, silver, bronze or mixed metals have also contributed to the building of Indian History. The validity of this statement is clear from the fact that the knowledge of history from 206 BC to 300AD id based mainly on the coins. These coins have helped us know about history in the following ways:
(a) They are helpful in deciding about the dates.
(b) They give us information about the titles, royal symbols, religious symbols, lineage, tendencies, personal hobbies, expanse of the empire, victory, prosperity of the state, borders, etc. the coins of Samudragupta, Chandragupta, and Skandagupta, Kushanas and Shaka kings are a proof of this.
(c) Coins also give us knowledge about the local language or the official language and the art and literature. The language of the Gupta period was Sanskrit and the drawings were very artistic.
(d) Coins also tell us about the condition of the rule of the foreign rulers – like the coins of the Sythian and Indo-Greek kings.

(4) Monuments and remnants

   The palaces, buildings, temples, forts, walls, canopies, stupas, Viharas, tombs, houses of the people, huge statues and paintings are all called as monuments, like the remnants of Harappa, Mohanjodaro and Takshashila, monuments of Sarnath, Nalanda, Sanchi and Bharhoot, rock paintings, staues and caves of Karli, Ajanta and Ellora, temples of Gujarat, Malwa and Rajasthan, temples and statues out of India like Borobudur, Cambodia and Prambanam. They have valuable treasure about the life of India.
   The ancient monuments and their remains give an insight into the development of fine arts, their topics and methodology. They are helpful in deciding the chronology of history. They throw sufficient light on the prevailing political, social, economic, cultural and religious life. The temples of Khajuraho, caves of Ajanta and Bagh, stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut give us a lot of information about the condition of life.
   The statues and paintings throw light on the clothing, appearance, food, vegetation, religious customs, thoughts, religious tolerance and social beliefs. The statues of Pashupati Shiva in Indus Valley, the paintings of Ajanta and the statues of the Gupta period hold such significance.

(5) Material found during excavations

   There is a lot of excavation work being done by the Archeological Department. A lot of things are obtained on digging in the ancient places or on the banks of the hillocks at the banks of the rivers, caves, remains of old buildings, forts, etc. various kinds of bricks, utensils,, weapons, statues, clothes, ornaments, cosmetics, tools, tools made of stones, objects of daily use, coins, skeletons of men and animals, bones, etc. are found in these places. The Indian History before Christ, the History of the Bronze Age, knowledge about the Indus Valley Civilization, knowledge about many incidents of the Buddhist Era, information about Takshashila and Nalanda have been got from the things obtained from excavations. The information on the civilization and culture of the Early Stone Age, Stone Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age in the ancient archeological sites of India are totally dependent on the archeological excavations. Hence, archeological excavations are a totally scientific method and its significance is of utmost importance in deciding the chronology of the dates of culture.
   From the above mentioned means of knowing History, it is clear that the statement of some of the western historians like Elfinstone and Cavell is absolutely misleading that the incidents of the Vedic Age in Indian History cannot be arranged in detain in a systematic chronological order. Actually the Vedic Age of the Indian History was a peaceful golden illustrious age. When the West was far from seeing the rise of a civilization and culture, India was passing through a glorious era. The western historians, who were ignorant of the glorious achievements of this age, have made tireless efforts to defame India in the eyes of the world. Our literary and archeological resources are so abundant that the material available in the other parts of the world has no standing in their comparison. The people of ancient India were not unaware of History. They described the events in the spiritual context. Western historians like Wilson, Rapson, Maxmuller, and Stine etc. have agreed that in the ancient times, Indians had historical talent.